© 1998 by European Society of Cardiology
Copyright © 1998, European Society of Cardiology
Patterns of expression in the developing myocardium: towards a morphologically integrated transcriptional model
Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, Netherlands
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 (20) 5664928; fax: +31 (20) 6976177; e-mail: a.f.moorman@amc.uva.nl
KEYWORDS Cardiac morphogenesis; Gene expression; Transgenic mice; Transcriptional regulation
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1 Introduction |
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The heart is the first embryonic organ to function. Early in development, the heart shows autorhythmycity and peristaltoid contraction waves [1, 2]. Contraction requires the expression of a specific set of proteins that form the contractile apparatus, i.e. the sarcomere. The contraction–relaxation cycle of the sarcomeric apparatus is mediated by changing local concentrations of free calcium. This function is achieved by another set of specific proteins, located in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and in the sarcolemma.
Fascinating questions that are still poorly understood are how the cardiogenic lineage becomes established to form the peristaltoid contracting tube without valves and how this tube becomes transformed into the synchronous-contracting four-chambered heart with unidirectional valves. It is well documented that the expression of the different isoforms of contractile proteins changes considerably during these stages (for a review see [3]). However, a detailed analysis of the changes in the patterns of gene expression
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2 Morphogenesis of the heart |
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3 Patterns of gene expression |
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3.1 Contractile proteins
3.1.1 Myosin heavy chains (MHCs)
3.1.2 Myosin light chains (MLCs)
3.1.3 Myosin-binding proteins (MyBPs)
3.1.4 Actins
3.1.5 Tropomodulin (TM)
3.1.6 Tropomyosin (Tmyo)
3.1.7 Troponins
3.1.8 Calponin
3.1.9 Other sarcomeric proteins
3.2 Calcium handling
3.2.1 Sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase (SERCA)
3.2.2 Phospholamban (PLB)
3.2.3 Ryanodine receptor (RyR)
3.2.4 Sodium–calcium exchanger (NCX)
3.2.5 Sodium–potassium ATPase (NaK-ATPase)
3.3 Impulse conduction
3.3.1 Connexins
3.4 Energy metabolism
3.4.1 Creatine kinases
3.5 Intermediate filaments
3.5.1 Desmin
3.6 Cell–cell and cell–matrix contact molecules
3.6.1 Integrins
3.6.2 Cadherins
3.7 Cardiac-specific transcription factors
3.7.1 Homeobox genes
3.7.2 GATA family
3.7.3 Myocyte enhancer factor (MEF)-2 family
3.7.4 Basic helix–loop–helix (bHLH) family
3.7.5 Other transcription factors
3.8 Miscellanea
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4 Patterns of transgene expression |
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4.1 Contractile proteins
4.1.1 Myosin heavy chains
4.1.2 Myosin light chains
4.1.3 Actins
4.1.4 Troponins
4.2 Intermediate filaments
4.3 Other genes
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5 Cardiac function during development |
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6 Transcriptional regulation in the developing heart |
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7 Perspectives |
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